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r | THE ARID REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES 
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F. H. NEWELL, 


Our honored President in his opening address on “the rela- 
tions of the currents of air and water to animal and vegetal® 


life and to the temperature of countries” gave an admirable 


description of the interdependence of climatic forces and showed 
in a concise manner how the topography of a country modifies 
the character of life, and through this fixes the industrial and social 
relations of its inhabitants. His address renders it unnecessary 
to diseuss the causes of aridity, or to more than mention the 
general effects; so this paper, supplementing what has been 
said, will dwell more upon the industrial or economic side of 
the matter, describing in general terms the present utilization of 
this vast region, much of it consisting of vacant lands. 

To the people of many countries, as well as our own, the geog! 
raphy of the arid regions of the United States has a pecular 
interest, owing to the fact that they include by far the greater 
part of the public lands, upon which new homes can be freely 
made either by our citizens or by foreigners intending to become 
citizens. These regions may be described in a general way as being 
in the western half of the United States, beyond the great plains, 
and extending westward nearly to the Pacific coast. On the north 


-and south they are bounded by territorial lines, the conditions 


of aridity prevailing in the north through Canada nearly or quite 
to the Arctic circle, and south through Mexico until interrupted 
by the belt of tropical rains. Although characterized by pre- 
vailing or occasional droughts, these areas are by no means a 
continuous desert. On the contrary, the deserts, as the term is 
applied in the old world, are comparatively rare and relatively 
small in extent. | 

The arid regions may be defined as those portions of the United 
States where the rainfall, in quantity or distribution, is not favor- 
able for the production of the ordinary cultivated food products. 

(167) 


168) oF. HL. Newell—Arid Regions of the United States. 


The limits are not easy to place, for they depend upon climatic 
forces which vary in intensity from year to year—that is to say, 
in any given locality within the arid regions there may not be 
for several successive years: sufficient moisture for maturing 
crops of grain, while in the following year rain occurring at the 
right time may enable a farmer to produce a heavy crop. Thus 
in the latter year these arid regions might be considered as re- 
duced in size, to be again increased as drought follows drought. 
It is necessary, therefore, to assume certain arbitrary boundaries 
based upon considerations of general success or failure of ordi- 
nary agricultural operations in so far as they are dependent 
upon rainfall. 

For the eastern boundary it is convenient to assume the one 
hundredth meridian west of Greenwich, although, as a matter 
of fact, ‘‘ dry” farming has been successfully carried on as far 
west as the one hundred and fifth meridian or even beyond. 
The western boundary is more irregular, owing to a wide differ- 
ence in the topography of the country which les between the 
well-defined arid and humid areas near the Pacific coast. 

As laid down by Powell* on the maps of the Geological Survey, 
the southwestern boundary of the arid region is the Pacific 
ocean up to a point on the coast of California north of Monterey 
bay. From here the line turns inward across the valley of the 
San Joaquin, then, excluding the bay counties, follows northward 
along the western foothills of the Sierra Nevadas and the eastern 
slopes of the Cascade range of Oregon and Washington, in which 
latter state it turns eastward, excluding from the arid regions the 
northeastern portions of Washington and Idaho. These lines, 
as originally drawn, were based largely upon the assumption that 
twenty inches of annual rainfall were necessary for farming opera- 
tions, but were modified, however, by considerations of the sea- 
sonal distribution. The lines thus laid down, although they 
may be criticised from various standpoints, are sufficiently exact 
for any general discussion, and are, perhaps, more useful than 
others drawn with greater nicety and attempting to reach higher 
Beco Ol 





«J, W. Boke ee Sec bad nee Here of fis irviontiog survey, in n Blow 
enth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, part 2, irri- 
gation, Washington, 1891. 

+ Lands of the Arid Regions of the United States, J. W. Rama Wash- 
ington, 1879, p. 3 et seq. 





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Reclamation of the arid Region. 169 


Within this great area, the extent of which is nearly half that 
of the United States, there is almost every variety of topography 
and climate, from the low sandy plains exposed to almost tropical 
heat to the lofty mountain ranges with alpine snows and winds. 
Portions of it are as truly humid as any part of the east, but 
these are too small and isolated to be severally distinguished in 
a broad survey of the whole. Plant life is everywhere abundant, 
but it is of a kind strange to the eyes of the traveller from the 
Kastern states, appearing to him sparsely distributed and _ par- 
taking of the general dry sun-burned character of the landscape. 
The bright green of fields and trees is rarely seen in the natural 
conditions, except after the rainy season, or on the high, well- 
watered mountain slopes. During the long seasons of drought 
the vegetation becomes brown and dusty, apparently dying, to 
revive, however, after the occasional rains. 

During the many years in which the population was spread- 
ing from the Atlantic coast westerly over the broad Mississipp1 
valley the arid regions were regarded as of little or no value, 
and were left for the Indians, the wandering trapper or pros- 
pector, and. the despised Mormon; but when at last the fertile 
areas of the east were exhausted and places for homes must be 
had elsewhere, the people of the eastern part of the United States 
suddenly awoke to the realization that there were great resources 
yet to be developed within this vast extent of country. Thus 
within comparatively few years the population of the arid region 
has enormously increased. Every possible resource is being 
rapidly exploited, and the results of geographers and other in- 
vestigators are being immediately acted upon to aid in pushing 
forward the development of this new land, which from its 
enormous extent promises to furnish homes for future millions. 

The arid regions, as a whole, are best known by their mineral 
wealth, especially of the precious metals. For many years min- 
ing has been the principal industry, the necessary supplies being 
originally brought from great distances. Agriculture was then 
deemed not only as too slow a road to wealth, but it was even 
asserted that owing to drought it would be utterly impracticable. 
Stock-raising, however, gradually encroached upon the areas 
hitherto regarded as deserts, the cattle men, as they were forced 
westward by the advance of civilization, gradually displacing 
the roving bands of Indians and buffaloes. A peculiar form of 
agriculture, looked down upon by the adventurous miners and 


a 


170 =F. H. Newell—Arid Regions of the United States. 


cattle men, had long been practiced by the Pueblo Indians and 
neighboring Mexicans, and to a certain extent adopted by Mor- 
mons when driven into the wilderness by their fellow-Christians. 
This depended upon the cultivation of the soil by artificial 
application of water, obtained usually from a small river or 
creek, and conducted to the field by laboriously-made ditches, 
often miles in length. The expense and trouble of applying 
water necessitated the tillage of relatively small farms, this 
disadvantage being compensated in part by a larger average 
production. Nothing could be in greater contrast to the broad 
corn fields of the Mississippi valley, extending on all sidés to 
the horizon, than the miniature gardens, from which, however, 
come luscious fruits and extraordinary vegetables. 

As mines were opened and towns established it soon became 
evident that in the long run the furnishing of food-stuffs and 
forage would be equally profitable with laboring in the mines and 
mills,if not more so. The methods of the Mormons and Mex- 
icans were copied, new sources of water-supply sought, ditches 
dug, and land brought under cultivation wherever it could be 
irrigated. Thus it has resulted that within a few years towns 
have sprung up in every direction, most of them dependent to a 
large extent upon mining, but having, through practice of agri- 
culture by irrigation, capabilities of self-support and of future 
extension. These areas are so vast that the land irrigated or 
occupied by towns and mines or other industries forms but a 
very small percentage of the total area, most of which still be- 
longs to the United States and is open to entry and settlement 
under the homestead laws. 

The total land area west of the 100th meridian and exclud- 
ing certain of the more humid portions of Oregon and Washing- 
ton is 1,371,960 square miles,* or, in round numbers, 878,000,000 
acres. Of this, about 7 per cent, or 64,000,000 acres, may be con- 
sidered as desert, having no known value, even in its minerals. 
A somewhat larger area—about 9 per cent, or 83,200,000 acres— 
is timbered, this heavily wooded land consisting mainly of moun- 
tain slopes and plateaus. F ringing this and scattered on the 
hill slopes and along the streams are clumps of trees capable of 
yielding firewood, fence posts, etc. The aggregate area of these 
scantily wooded lands is estimated to be 115,200,000 acres, or a 





* Thirteenth annual report of the United States Geological Survey, 


part 3, p. 8, 


The Extent of Irrigation. 171 


little less than 13 per cent of the total. Deducting the aggre- 
gate acreage of desert and wooded lands, there are left about 
615,600,000 acres, the greater part of which supports a scanty 
herbage which, either green or sun-cured, is readily eaten by 
cattle. This may all be grouped under the head of grazing 
lands, since at one time or another of the year herds of cattle or 
sheep can find sustenance. Most of this latter class of land, com- 
prising over two-thirds of the area west of the 100th meridian, 
has a fertile soil and climate favorable to agriculture in all re- 
spects save that of moisture. With water, great crops could be 
produced, but without it nothing but the scanty native grasses 
succeed. ‘The area which has actually been redeemed by irri- 
gation is quite small, not to exceed 1 per cent. The eleventh 
census of the United States found that in 1889 only 3,631,381 
acres* were irrigated, this being but four-tenths of 1 per cent of 
the entire area west of the 100th meridian. Besides the area 
irrigated a relatively small area was cultivated by “dry ” farm- 
ing, the yield being, however, small. 

The further extension of agriculture within the arid region 
rests on the complete utilization of the water supply. As 
previously stated, the streams have been employed to a large 
extent and there now remain only a few rivers from which 
water for irrigation is not diverted.t These flow on undisturbed 
because of the great expense, and the engineering difficulties 
encountered rendering doubtful the financial success of any 
undertaking. In the case of many of the smaller streams the 
ageregate of the claims to the water exceed by far the ordinary 
quantity discharged, and, as a result, most of the claimants must 
be satisfied with an amount of water less than that to which 
they assert ownership. At the same time a large proportion of 
the water of these streams flows to waste either in floods or in 
winter, all of which could be used to advantage if it could be 
held by storage.{ The enormous cost of creating reservoirs for 
the waste waters and the small apparent profits have to a large 
extent deterred private capital from entering upon such projects. 








* Kleventh Census of the United States, 1890, Irrigation in Western 
United States by F. H. Newell, p. 3. 

Tt Water Supply for Irrigation by F. H. Newell, in thirteenth annual 
report of the United States Geological Survey. 

t Hydrography of the Arid Regions by F. H. Newell, in twelfth an- 
nual report of the United States Geological Survey, p. 224 et seq. 


172. F. H. Newell—Arid Regions of the United States. 


The tillable lands to be benefited by water conservation or by 
the utilization of the larger streams not now diverted by canals 
are almost wholly owned or claimed by individuals or corpora- 
tions, so that future developments must rest most largely with 
these. Wise legislation will do much to aid in making feasible 
many great undertakings, but as a rule it may be said that de- 
velopments in this line must depend largely upon individual 
efforts and upon the ordinary laws of supply and demand. 

It has been estimated that by a complete utilization of the 
water supply of the arid regions about 40,000,000 acres cqn be 
irrigated ; but, allowing even that 100,000,000 acres of the fer- 
tile grazing land can be thus redeemed, there still remain over 
500,000,000 acres, most of which, as well as the desert and 
timber acres, are still in the hands of the general Government. 

The question as to the best utilization of the great body of 
unoccupied lands is one of immediate concern to the country at 
large, as well as to the inhabitants of this area. In a general 
way it may be said that the more easily available resources have 
already been taken possession of by individuals or by associa- 
tions of men, and there remain only such as were rejected or not 
available. Much of the best mineral land is owned by private 
parties, but even on the explored Government land there are 
probably many mines yet to be discovered. The herds of cattle 
have increased to such an extent that the lands, whether owned 
by the Government or by corporations, are thoroughly grazed 
over, and in many localities the herds must be fed with hay, 
during part of the year at least. All of the water supply of the 
country which can be readily diverted is claimed or appropriated 
by irrigation or land companies, and almost without excep- 
tion the irrigable lands along perennial streams has passed out 
of the hands of the Government. Still the demand for homes 
continues, and settlers are from necessity forced to attempt to 
make a living where conditions seem to be against them. There 
are thousands or perhaps millions of farms which can be pur- 
chased from individuals or corporations, but the possibilities of 
obtaining agricultural land from the Government seem to be 
almost exhausted. 





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